1 Introduction

Laboratory animal research is a critical component of biomedical and behavioral sciences, providing essential insights into human and animal health. This field involves the use of animals to study biological processes, disease mechanisms, and potential treatments, thereby contributing significantly to scientific and medical advancements (Barbee and Turner, 2019). However, it also raises ethical concerns regarding animal welfare and the humane treatment of research animals (Buchanan et al., 2012). The scope of laboratory animal research extends beyond mere experimentation; it encompasses the ethical, legal, and welfare considerations necessary to ensure the humane treatment of animals used in research settings (Michael, 2016).

Veterinary care is paramount in laboratory animal research, as it ensures the health and welfare of animals, which in turn enhances the quality and reliability of research outcomes. Attending veterinarians (AVs) play a crucial role in overseeing animal housing, health, and welfare, thereby mitigating stress and pain experienced by animals and researchers alike1. Their involvement is essential for maintaining a "Culture of Care," which emphasizes the ethical treatment of animals and the well-being of researchers (Bertelsen and Øvlisen, 2021; Williams et al., 2021). Moreover, veterinary care is integral to implementing the 3Rs (Replace, Reduce, Refine) principles, which aim to minimize animal use and suffering in research (Roe and Greenhough, 2021). By ensuring proper animal care, veterinarians contribute to the ethical and scientific integrity of research projects (Ferrara et al., 2022).

This study attempts to explore the comprehensive role of veterinary care in laboratory animal research, discuss its impact on animal welfare and research quality, and provide an overview of the psychological well-being of researchers. The objective of this paper is to underscore the necessity of integrating veterinary expertise into research protocols to balance scientific progress with ethical considerations. By examining the multifaceted contributions of veterinary care, this study seeks to advocate for enhanced recognition and implementation of veterinary practices in laboratory settings, ultimately promoting a more humane and effective research environment.

2 Ethical Considerations in Laboratory Animal Research

2.1 Overview of ethical guidelines and regulations for animal research

The ethical guidelines and regulations for animal research are primarily centered around the 3Rs principle: Replacement, Reduction, and Refinement. These principles were first introduced in 1959 by Russell and Burch and have since become a cornerstone of ethical animal research worldwide (Hubrecht and Carter, 2019). The 3Rs are embedded in legislation such as the European Directive 2010/63/EU, which governs the use of animals in experiments across European member states (Ritskes-Hoitinga and Van Luijk, 2019; Verderio et al., 2023). The guidelines emphasize the importance of replacing animals with alternative models whenever possible, reducing the number of animals used by employing efficient statistical designs, and refining experimental procedures to minimize animal suffering (Sneddon et al., 2017; Lewis et al., 2019). Despite the widespread adoption of these principles, their implementation has been inconsistent, prompting ongoing efforts to enhance awareness and application among researchers.

2.2 The ethical duty of researchers in animal welfare

Researchers have an ethical duty to ensure the welfare of animals used in research, which involves adhering to the 3Rs principles. This duty extends beyond mere compliance with regulations to actively engaging in practices that minimize harm and enhance the quality of life for laboratory animals (Greenhough and Roe, 2017). The ethical review process often includes a harm-benefit analysis to weigh the scientific value of the research against the potential harm to animals (Nannoni and Mancini, 2024). Researchers are encouraged to consider animal welfare as a critical component of scientific validity, as stress and pain can introduce bias and affect the reliability of research outcomes (Franco et al., 2018; Calvillo et al., 2022). Training in laboratory animal science is crucial for promoting best practices and fostering a culture of care among researchers.

2.3 Case study: the 3rs (replacement, reduction, refinement) in practice

The practical application of the 3Rs can be seen in various research settings. For instance, the study by Durst et al. on pain management in a mouse model of pancreatitis exemplifies the principle of Refinement by exploring analgesic treatments to reduce animal suffering (Calvillo et al., 2022). Similarly, systematic reviews have been employed to implement the 3Rs by synthesizing high-quality research evidence, thereby reducing the need for new animal studies and improving the overall quality of research (Ritskes-Hoitinga and Van Luijk, 2019). The role of animal technologists in implementing the 3Rs further highlights the importance of refinement and reduction in practice, as they often exceed legal requirements to enhance animal care (Greenhough and Roe, 2017). These examples demonstrate how the 3Rs can be effectively integrated into research to uphold ethical standards and improve scientific outcomes.

In summary, the ethical guidelines for animal research are deeply rooted in the 3Rs principles, which guide researchers in minimizing harm and enhancing animal welfare. Researchers have a duty to apply these principles diligently, ensuring that their work is both ethically and scientifically sound. Practical applications of the 3Rs, such as pain management and systematic reviews, illustrate their critical role in advancing humane and effective research practices.

3 Key Responsibilities of Veterinary Care in Laboratory Settings

3.1 Health screening and pre-research veterinary assessments

Veterinary care in laboratory settings begins with comprehensive health screening and pre-research assessments to ensure the well-being of animals before they are involved in research. This involves evaluating the health status of animals, ensuring they are free from diseases, and assessing their suitability for specific research protocols. Attending veterinarians play a crucial role in overseeing these assessments, ensuring that animals are healthy and fit for research, which is essential for both ethical and scientific reasons (Lee-Parritz et al., 2020; Lee et al., 2024). Proper health screening helps in minimizing variables that could affect research outcomes and ensures compliance with ethical standards (Heimann et al., 2018).

3.2 Veterinary care during the research process: monitoring and intervention

During the research process, veterinary care involves continuous monitoring and intervention to manage and mitigate any pain or distress experienced by the animals. This includes regular health checks, pain assessment, and the provision of necessary medical interventions to maintain animal welfare (Roe and Greenhough, 2021; Lee et al., 2024). Attending veterinarians are responsible for educating researchers on proper care techniques and ensuring compliance with post-surgical care protocols. They also play a vital role in addressing any unforeseen health issues that arise during the research, thereby ensuring the integrity of the research data and the welfare of the animals (Goñi-Balentziaga et al., 2021).

3.3 Post-research care and long-term animal welfare

Post-research care is a critical responsibility of veterinary care, focusing on the long-term welfare of animals after the conclusion of research activities. This includes ensuring proper recovery from any procedures, managing any long-term health issues, and considering options for rehoming or humane euthanasia when necessary (Palmer et al., 2022; Lee et al., 2024). Programs for rehoming animals after experiments can positively impact both animal welfare and the psychological well-being of researchers. The role of veterinarians extends to ensuring that ethical considerations are maintained throughout the animal's life, even after the research has ended (Roe and Greenhough, 2021).

In summary, veterinary care in laboratory settings encompasses a range of responsibilities from pre-research health assessments to post-research welfare considerations. These responsibilities are crucial for maintaining ethical standards, ensuring the reliability of research data, and promoting the welfare of laboratory animals.

4 Animal Housing and Environmental Enrichment

4.1 Design and maintenance of laboratory animal housing

The design and maintenance of laboratory animal housing are critical components in ensuring the welfare of animals used in research. Proper housing must consider the ethology of the species to provide an environment that closely mimics their natural habitat, which is essential for their physical and psychological well-being (Gazzano and Mariti, 2020). The Guide for Laboratory Animal Facilities and Care emphasizes the importance of high standards in animal housing, which includes considerations for lighting, temperature, and noise levels to minimize stress and promote health (Buchanan et al., 2012). Additionally, the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committees (IACUCs) play a vital role in overseeing housing conditions to ensure they meet ethical and scientific standards (Mohan and Huneke, 2019).

4.2 Importance of environmental enrichment for mental and physical health

Environmental enrichment is crucial for the mental and physical health of laboratory animals. It involves providing stimuli that promote natural behaviors and reduce stress, which can otherwise lead to compromised welfare and skewed research results (Mohan and Huneke, 2019). Enrichment strategies may include social interaction, physical structures for exploration, and cognitive challenges, all of which contribute to improved animal welfare and more reliable scientific outcomes (Gazzano and Mariti, 2020). The implementation of enrichment programs is supported by the European Directive 2010/63/EU, which mandates the development of such programs to enhance animal welfare and research quality (Codecasa et al., 2021).

4.3 Veterinary oversight of housing conditions and enrichment programs

Veterinary oversight is essential in maintaining optimal housing conditions and implementing effective enrichment programs. Attending veterinarians (AVs) are responsible for monitoring animal health and welfare, ensuring that housing and enrichment meet the necessary standards. They play a crucial role in identifying signs of distress or pain and intervening with appropriate measures, such as analgesic therapy, to maintain animal welfare throughout the research process. Furthermore, AVs contribute to the development and evaluation of enrichment programs, ensuring they are tailored to the specific needs of the species and the research objectives (Gazzano and Mariti, 2020; Lee et al., 2024).

In summary, the design and maintenance of laboratory animal housing, the importance of environmental enrichment, and veterinary oversight are all integral to ensuring the welfare of laboratory animals. These elements not only enhance animal well-being but also improve the reliability and validity of research outcomes.

5 Health Management and Disease Prevention

Effective health management and disease prevention in laboratory animal research are crucial for ensuring the welfare of animals and the integrity of research data. This section explores preventive health measures, disease monitoring, and case studies on managing infectious disease outbreaks in animal facilities.

5.1 Preventive health measures and vaccination protocols

Preventive health measures, including vaccination protocols, are essential in maintaining the health of laboratory animals. Vaccination can play a significant role in preventing infectious diseases, as seen in discussions about vaccinating African apes against diseases like Ebola, which could also benefit from human vaccines under development (Brody, 2017). The implementation of comprehensive health-monitoring programs, such as those following FELASA guidelines, helps ensure the best possible health state for laboratory animals by regularly screening for pathogens using molecular biology techniques and enzyme immunoassays (Romano et al., 2020). These measures are part of the broader Refinement concept within the 3Rs principle, aiming to improve animal welfare and research outcomes.

5.2 Monitoring and surveillance for disease in laboratory animals

Monitoring and surveillance are critical components of disease prevention in laboratory settings. Effective surveillance systems help detect and manage potential outbreaks, ensuring the health of both animals and research personne. In Vietnam, a study highlighted the need for strengthening national capacities for disease surveillance and outbreak investigation, emphasizing the importance of training and resources at the local level (Auplish et al., 2024). Additionally, the use of point-of-care tests (POCTs) in low- and middle-income countries can significantly enhance disease diagnosis and reporting, although challenges such as test validation and regulatory issues must be addressed (Hobbs et al., 2020). Health monitoring programs, like those implemented in IZSLER facilities, provide a framework for maintaining controlled environmental and sanitary conditions, thereby supporting the health of laboratory animals (Romano et al., 2020).

5.3 Case study: managing infectious disease outbreaks in animal facilities

Managing infectious disease outbreaks in animal facilities requires a coordinated approach involving risk assessment, surveillance, and intervention strategies. Historical challenges in laboratory animal programs, such as ineffective exclusion and prevention of zoonotic diseases, have been addressed through improved housing conditions, centralized veterinary care, and comprehensive risk assessments (Colby and Zitzow, 2018). These assessments consider factors such as research type, animal species, and housing conditions, and involve a team approach including research, husbandry, veterinary, and biosafety personnel. The effectiveness of occupational health and safety programs in managing zoonotic risks is also crucial in preventing disease transmission and ensuring the safety of both animals and personnel.

In summary, comprehensive veterinary care in laboratory animal research involves a multifaceted approach to health management and disease prevention. Preventive measures, effective monitoring, and strategic management of outbreaks are essential to maintaining animal welfare and research integrity.

6 Veterinary Interventions and Emergency Care

6.1 Protocols for early detection of health issues in laboratory animals

Early detection of health issues in laboratory animals is crucial for ensuring their welfare and the integrity of research data. Protocols should include regular health monitoring and structured assessments to detect pain and distress, as these are often underreported in scientific literature (Carbone and Austin, 2016; Herrmann and Flecknell, 2019). The development of comprehensive animal care and use protocols (AUPs) is essential, as they provide detailed descriptions of animal procedures, including emergency contacts and procedures, which are vital for early intervention (Williams et al., 2020).

6.2 Surgical procedures and pain management in research animals

Surgical procedures in laboratory animals require careful consideration of anesthesia and analgesia to minimize pain and distress. The choice of anesthetics and post-operative analgesics is critical, as both can affect research outcomes (Carbone and Austin, 2016). Enhanced Recovery After Surgery (ERAS) protocols, which include locoregional anesthetic techniques, are being adapted in veterinary medicine to improve surgical outcomes and animal welfare (Campoy, 2022). However, a retrospective review highlighted that postoperative analgesia is often inadequately addressed, with structured pain assessments frequently absent. This underscores the need for improved pain management practices and adherence to guidelines like the ARRIVE and PREPARE (Table 1) (Herrmann and Flecknell, 2019).

Table 1 Post-procedural multimodal analgesic approaches following surgery on mice (Adopted from Herrmann and Flecknell, 2019) Note: Postoperative analgesia was administered following 57% of the surgical interventions on mice, less than 1% being multimodal (Adopted from Herrmann and Flecknell, 2019)

6.3 Emergency care: handling acute medical events in laboratory animals

Emergency care in laboratory settings involves rapid response to acute medical events to prevent animal suffering and ensure research continuity. Protocols should include detailed emergency procedures and contact information for veterinary care, as outlined in well-prepared AUPs (Williams et al., 2020). The implementation of ERAS protocols can also play a role in emergency care by optimizing anesthesia and analgesia, thus reducing perioperative complications and facilitating quicker recovery (Figure 1) (Campoy, 2022). Additionally, the use of animal-assisted interventions (AAIs) in emergency settings has shown potential benefits, although more research is needed to fully understand their impact (Gaudet et al., 2021).

Figure 1 A: Relevant ultrasound anatomy pertinent to the intercostal nerve block B: Ultrasound-guided intercostal nerve block being carried out on a Beagle dog (Adopted from Campoy, 2022) Image caption: The marker (green circle) is oriented cranially. The intercostal nerve can be observed in the caudomedial aspect of the rib. The goal is to advance the needle deep to the external intercostal and internal intercostal muscles. A “click” may be felt when entering the space. The dog is positioned in lateral recumbency. A high frequency, linear array ultrasound transducer should be positioned over the ribs, in a transverse orientation in relation to the ribs with the marker (green circle) oriented cranially. The needle should be advanced in plane. EI = External intercostal muscle. II = Internal intercostal muscle. IN = Intercostal nerve. R = Rib (Adopted from Campoy, 2022)

In summary, comprehensive veterinary care in laboratory animal research involves the development of detailed protocols for early detection of health issues, effective surgical and pain management practices, and robust emergency care procedures. These elements are essential for ensuring animal welfare and the reliability of research outcomes.

7 Legal and Regulatory Aspects of Veterinary Care in Research

7.1 Regulatory frameworks governing laboratory animal care and use

The regulatory frameworks governing laboratory animal care and use are designed to ensure ethical treatment and scientific integrity in research involving animals. These frameworks often include laws and guidelines that mandate the humane treatment of animals, the necessity of minimizing pain and distress, and the requirement for scientific justification of animal use. For instance, the EU Directive 2010/63/EU on the protection of animals used for scientific purposes provides a comprehensive legal structure that researchers must adhere to, ensuring that animal welfare is prioritized in scientific studies (Yeates et al., 2016). Additionally, the integration of harm-benefit analysis in licensing practices, as seen in Norway, exemplifies how regulatory systems aim to balance scientific objectives with ethical considerations (Druglitrø et al., 2022).

7.2 The role of institutional animal care and use committees (IACUC)

Institutional Animal Care and Use Committees (IACUC) play a crucial role in overseeing the ethical and humane treatment of animals in research settings. These committees are responsible for reviewing research protocols to ensure compliance with ethical standards and legal requirements. They serve as a bridge between regulatory frameworks and research practices, ensuring that all animal use is justified and that welfare considerations are adequately addressed. The IACUC's oversight is essential for maintaining the integrity of research and fostering a culture of care within research institutions (Guillen and Steckler, 2019). Their role is to ensure that all aspects of animal care and use are scrutinized and optimized to promote ethical research practices (Lee-Parritz, 2020).

7.3 Case study: legal and regulatory compliance in animal research

A case study on legal and regulatory compliance in animal research highlights the complexities and challenges faced by researchers in adhering to established guidelines. In the UK, for example, researchers conducting invasive animal research in the field must navigate a myriad of social, ethical, and regulatory challenges. These include managing relationships with stakeholders, addressing ethical considerations unique to field research, and working within diverse regulatory frameworks that may have competing ethical principles (Palmer and Greenhough, 2021). This case study underscores the importance of flexibility and respect for expertise in negotiating these challenges, emphasizing the need for a comprehensive understanding of both legal obligations and ethical responsibilities in animal research (Kiraga and Dzikowski, 2023).

In summary, the legal and regulatory aspects of veterinary care in research are multifaceted, involving stringent frameworks and oversight mechanisms to ensure ethical treatment of animals. Institutional committees like the IACUC are pivotal in maintaining compliance and promoting ethical research practices, while case studies illustrate the practical challenges and solutions in achieving regulatory compliance.

8 Advances in Veterinary Care for Laboratory Animals

8.1 Innovations in diagnostic tools for veterinary care

Recent advancements in diagnostic tools for veterinary care have been significantly influenced by the integration of artificial intelligence (AI). AI enhances diagnostic precision and speed, allowing veterinarians to make informed decisions more efficiently. This technology is particularly beneficial in predicting disease outbreaks and tracking zoonotic diseases, which are crucial for maintaining the health of laboratory animals used in research1 (Sharun et al., 2024). Additionally, AI's ability to analyze genetic, environmental, and historical data enables the creation of personalized treatment plans, further improving diagnostic outcomes.

8.2 Advances in veterinary telemedicine and remote monitoring

Veterinary telemedicine has emerged as a transformative tool in animal healthcare, especially during and after the COVID-19 pandemic. It offers numerous applications such as teleradiology, telecardiology, and telecytology, which are essential for providing continuous care and overcoming geographical constraints (Teller and Moberly, 2020; Williams, 2023; Abu-Seida et al., 2024). Telemedicine facilitates remote monitoring of animal health, allowing veterinarians to track vital signs and intervene promptly when necessary (Sharun et al., 2024). This approach not only improves accessibility to veterinary services, particularly in remote areas, but also reduces the need for physical visits, minimizing stress for both animals and clients (Addae et al., 2023; Juodžentė et al., 2024).

8.3 Future directions: personalized veterinary medicine for research animals

The future of veterinary care for laboratory animals is likely to be shaped by personalized medicine, driven by AI and telemedicine technologies. AI's capacity to generate personalized treatment plans by analyzing comprehensive data sets is paving the way for more tailored healthcare solutions for research animals. This approach promises to enhance the welfare and health outcomes of laboratory animals by addressing their unique needs and conditions. As these technologies continue to evolve, they will play a crucial role in advancing veterinary care, ensuring that research animals receive the most effective and individualized treatments possible (Akinsulie et al., 2024; Sharun et al., 2024).

In summary, the integration of AI and telemedicine into veterinary care is revolutionizing the field by improving diagnostic accuracy, enhancing remote monitoring capabilities, and paving the way for personalized medicine. These advancements are crucial for the welfare of laboratory animals, ensuring they receive high-quality care tailored to their specific needs.

9 Concluding Remarks

The study highlights the critical role of comprehensive veterinary care in laboratory animal research, emphasizing the importance of collaboration between veterinary and research professionals to ensure high-quality research outcomes. It underscores the necessity of addressing both scientific and humane considerations in animal research, including model selection, minimizing animal pain, and ensuring ethical compliance. The involvement of attending veterinarians (AVs) is shown to enhance both animal welfare and the psychological well-being of researchers, thereby improving research capability. Additionally, the study identifies the need for adequate training and technical competency among researchers to reduce variability and improve reproducibility in research outcomes.

Comprehensive veterinary care plays a pivotal role in enhancing research quality by ensuring the welfare of laboratory animals and supporting the mental health of researchers. AVs are instrumental in overseeing animal health, providing education on pain assessment, and promoting compliance with care protocols, which collectively contribute to more reliable and ethical research practices. Furthermore, the establishment of a culture of care, which includes recognizing animal agency and fostering a supportive work environment, is essential for maintaining high standards in laboratory animal science.

To strengthen veterinary care practices in laboratory research, the study recommends implementing comprehensive training programs to enhance the technical competency of researchers and animal care staff, ensuring that procedures are performed correctly and ethically. Additionally, it calls for increased recognition of the role of Animal Veterinarians (AVs) in research institutions, expanding their responsibilities to include not only animal welfare oversight but also support for researchers' psychological well-being. The promotion of a culture of care is also crucial, integrating ethical considerations, animal agency, and humane endpoints into research protocols, in line with the 3Rs principle (Replacement, Reduction, Refinement). Furthermore, regular systematic evaluations of occupational health and safety programs should be conducted to ensure compliance with regulations and address any deficiencies in care practices. In summary, comprehensive veterinary care is essential for the ethical and effective conduct of laboratory animal research. By enhancing training, recognizing the role of AVs, promoting a culture of care, and ensuring regular evaluations, research institutions can significantly improve both animal welfare and research quality.

Acknowledgments

We extends the sincere gratitude to the two anonymous peer reviewers for their contributions during the evaluation of this manuscript.

Conflict of Interest Disclosure

The authors affirm that this research was conducted without any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

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